Ludwig Elder von Mises

Ludwig Elder von Mises, the eminence of the “Austrian School” of economics, may be best known for his part in a debate that raged during the early part of the 20th Century about the possibility of successful economic coordination under socialism. Mises argued forcefully that state ownership of the means of production makes the best

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Theory of the firm

Theory of the firm is an analysis of the behavior of companies that examine inputs, production methods, output and prices. This is a microeconomic concept that states that a firm exists and make decisions to maximize profits by creating a gap between revenue and costs. The first elementary examination of companies was made by French economist Antoine

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Altruism (1850-1855)

Also called (William Donald) Hamilton’s genetical theory of social behavior, altruism is any behavior of an animal that may be disadvantageous for the individual, but that benefits others of its species. The theory was espoused (as the ‘law of mutual aid‘) by Prince Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), a Russian philosopher; but the term was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857),

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Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Emile D. Durkheim was born on the evening of April 15, 1858 at Epinal in Lorraine. His mother, Melanie, was a merchant’s daughter and his father was the Rabbi of Epinal and was also Chief Rabbi of the Vosges and Haute-Marne. Emile spent part of his early school years in a rabbinical school destined

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Androcentrism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory attributed by feminists to male scholarship. Androcentrism, or male centeredness, is attributed to rather than claimed by theories and thinkers. Androcentrism takes male values or practices as the norm, and then explains female values or practices as deviations from, or unsuccessful aspirations towards, male ways of doing things. Origin of the term The

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Anomie (19TH CENTURY- )

Characteristic of modern society described by French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). In modern societies, an absence of effective moral or cultural rules and restraints to individual wills leads to both social and individual breakdown, since frameworks are necessary for stable social life. History In 1893, Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe the mismatch of collective guild labour to

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Apartheid (20TH CENTURY)

South African/Afrikaans theory of legally enforced racial separation. Apartheid rested on the argument that racial distinctions were fundamental to the character of human societies, and that they were biologically based. Human beings should thus be categorized by race, and this categorization should be legally enforced in social, economic, and political affairs. Races should not

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Aristocracy (20TH CENTURY)

Aristocracy is the theory of hierarchy. Originally from the Greek ‘rule by the best’, but now attribution of quality to hereditary elites. In any society there will be a minority of people of superior skill, wisdom, experience and moral fibre. These qualities are likely to be transmitted through families and are thus to all

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Atavism (1825-1835)

Meaning the reversion to an earlier type (a throwback) that has been absent during intervening generations, the concept of atavism dates from antiquity. In modernity, the idea was applied by CESARE LOMBROSO (1835-1909), an Italian criminologist who believed that ‘the criminal mind’ was caused by a primitive human state. American sociologist Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) applied atavism

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Biological determinism

Theory of human character. Normally attributed to thinkers rather than claimed by them. Human character is determined by physical, biological characteristics, which are inherited. Racism and sexism both frequently employ the assumptions of biological determinism to divide people into groups which are alleged to differ in ability and inclination. Biological determinism, also known as genetic determinism,[1] is the belief

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Bureaucracy (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of organization in modern society, developed in particular by the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). Bureaucracy is the characteristic form of organization in modern society, not only in its government but in commerce and social institutions. Responsibility is vested in full-time officials whose livelihood is derived from their salaries and who are appointed on merit.

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Communications theory (20TH CENTURY)

Explanation of human society in terms of communication of meanings. The existence of social relations and of human society depends on the creation of shared meanings and understandings. These in turn depend on the communication of such meanings amongst people, and in this process language plays a central role. There are many differing accounts

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Corporatism (20TH CENTURY)

Corporatism is descriptive and prescriptive theory of government’s relations with society. It is sometimes termed neo-corporatism to distinguish it from the political theories of fascism. In the prescriptive version, all those engaged in a common enterprise, particularly as a means of making a living, have a common interest and should deal with government through their

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Eugenics (1883)

Coined by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), British scientist and cousin of evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin (1809-1882), this is the doctrine that such human qualities as intelligence and character are inherited, and that humanity should take deliberate steps to produce fine offspring. ‘Positive’ eugenics refers to the reproduction of desirable types, whereas ‘negative’ eugenics refers to efforts

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Feminist linguistics (1960S- )

Originally expressed in terms of political feminism, recently more technically articulated through the contribution of linguists such as Jennifer Coates and Deborah Tannen. Studies of women’s language, of language and sexism, and of male bias in linguistic theory. Also see: GENDER AND LANGUAGE Source: D Tannen, Feminism and Linguistic Theory (London, 1985) History Linguistic activism and feminist

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Feminist methodology (20TH CENTURY)

The application of feminist theory to methods and concepts of sociological investigation. Feminist research practice requires a critical stance towards existing methodology in the social sciences. While an attention to the responsibilities, rights and particular knowledge of those studied, and a recognition of gendered power relationships in the conduct and process of research may not be unique to feminist methodology;

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Functionalism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of relation of parts to social whole. Society is a system of interrelated institutions and processes, which are to be understood in terms of the function they perform for the system as a whole. These functions are not necessarily intended, and may even be contrary to the expressed intentions of those concerned. Also

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Grand theory

A class of theories rather than a particular one. Grand theory is any theory which attempts an overall explanation of social life, history, or human experience. It is normally contrasted with empiricism, positivism, or the view that understanding is only possible by studying particular instances, societies, or phenomena. Source: Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand

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Grounded theory (20TH CENTURY)

Attempt to relate empirical and theoretical social science. Theories which seek to explain political or social phenomena must be ‘grounded’ in empirical observation, otherwise they are simple inventions. Also see: empiricism Source: Barney G Glaser, The Discovery of Grounded Theory (New York, 1967) Background Grounded theory is a general research methodology, a way of thinking

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Historical materialism (19TH CENTURY)

Historical theory initiated by Karl Marx (1818-1883). The material circumstances of society, the manner in which its members get a living and the control of their resources for doing so, are the chief influences upon its history. Also see: dialectic, dialectical materialism Source: Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx (Cambridge, 1986) History and development Origins Karl Marx never

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