The Organism as Open System

Physical chemistry presents the theory of kinetics and equilibria in chemical systems. As example, consider the reversible reaction in ester formation: C2H5OH + CH3 • COOH <=> CH3COO • C2H5 + H2O, in which always a certain quantitative ratio between alcohol and acetic acid on the one hand, and between ester and water on

General Characteristics of Open Chemical Systems

True equilibria in closed systems and stationary “equilibria” in open systems show a certain similarity, inasmuch as the system, taken as a whole and in view of its components, remains constant in both systems. But the physical situation in both cases is fundamentally different. Chemical equilibria in closed systems are based on reversible reactions;

Equifinality in Physical System

One important characteristic of biological systems is circum­scribed by terms like “purposiveness,” “finality,” “goal-seeking,” etc. Let us see whether physical considerations can contribute to a clarification of these terms. It has often been emphasized that every system attaining an equilibrium shows, in a certain way, “finalistic” behavior as was discussed previously (pp. 75f.). More

Biological Applications of Physical System

It should have become evident by now that many characteristics of organismic systems, often considered vitalistic or mystical, can be derived from the system concept and the characteristics of certain, rather general system equations, in connection with thermodynamic and statistical-mechanical considerations. If the organism is an open system, the principles generally applying to systems

The Living Machine and Its Limitations

The present discussion may be started with one of those trivial questions which are often only too difficult to answer scientifically. What is the difference between a normal, a sick and a dead organism? From the standpoint of physics and chemistry the answer is bound to be that the difference is not definable on

Some Characteristics of Open Systems

We express this by saying that living systems are basically open systems (Burton, 1939; von Bertalanffy, 1940a; Chapter 5). An open system is defined as a system in exchange of matter with its environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material components. Up to comparatively recent times physical chemistry, in kinetics

Open Systems in Biology

The model of open systems is applicable to many problems and fields of biology (Beier, 1962, 1965; Locker et al., 1964, 1966a). A survey of the biophysics of open systems, including theoretical foundations and applications, was given some years ago (von Bertalanlfy, 1953a); a revised edition (with W. Beier, R. Laue and A. Locker) is

Open Systems and Cybernetics

Here the important question of the relation of general system theory and cybernetics, of open systems and regulatory mechanisms appears (cf. pp. 160ff.). In the present context a few remarks will suffice. The basis of the open-system model is the dynamic interaction of its components. The basis of the cybernetic model is the feedback

Unsolved Problems in Open System

At present, we do not have a thermodynamic criterion that would define the steady state in open systems in a similar way as maximum entropy defines equilibrium in closed systems. It was believed for some time that such criterion was provided by minimum entropy production, a statement known as “Prigogine’s Theorem.” Although it is

Open Systems and Steady States in Biology

Any modern investigation of metabolism and growth has to take into account that the living organism as well as its components are so-called open systems, i.e., systems maintaining themselves in a continuous exchange of matter with environment (FIG. 7.1). The essential point is that open systems are beyond the limits of conventional physical chemistry

Feedback and Homeostasis of System Theory in Biology

Instead of the theory of open systems, another model construct is more familiar to the American school. It is the concept of feedback regulation, which is basic in cybernetics and was biologi- cally formulated in Cannon’s concept of homeostasis (e.g., Wiener, 1948; Wagner, 1954; Mittelstaedt, 1954, 1956; Kment, 1957). We can give it only

Allometry and the Surface Rule of System Theory in Biology

Let us now proceed to the third model which is the so-called principle of allometry. As is well known, many phenomena of metabolism, and of biochemistry, morphogenesis, evolution, etc., follow a simple equation: i.e., if a .variable y is plotted logarithmically against another variable x, a straight line results. There are so many cases

Theory of Animal Growth

The last model I wish to discuss is the model of growth, honorifically called the Bertalanffy equations (von Bertalanffy, 1957b, 1960b); basic ideas go back to the great German physiologist Putter (1920). Here, too, I am not primarily concerned with details or even the merits and shortcomings of the model; I rather wish to

The Organismic Revolution

In a famous passage of his Critique of Practical Reason, Kant stated that there are two things that fill him with indescribable awe— the starry sky above him and the moral law within him. Kant’s time was the height of German classicism. Within a few decades before and after 1800 the great German poets,

The Image of Man in Contemporary Thought

What can these developments contribute toward the Sciences of Man? The unsatisfactory status of contemporary psychological theory is common knowledge. It seems a hodgepodge of contradicting theories ranging from behaviorism, which sees no difference between human behavior and that of laboratory rats (and, more important, engineers pattern human behavior after the model of rat

System-Theoretical Re-orientation

It is along such lines that a new model or image of man seems to be emerging. We may briefly characterize it as the model of man as active personality system. This, it appears, is the common denominator of many otherwise different currents such as developmental psychology after Piaget and Werner, various neo- Freudian

Systems in the Social Sciences

Finally, we should look for the application of the systems con- ception to the widest perspective, i.e., human groups, societies, and humanity as a whole. For purposes of discussion, let us understand “social science” in a broad sense, including sociology, economics, political science, social psychology, cultural anthropology, linguistics, a good part of history and

Systems in the Social Sciences

In contrast to biological species which have evolved by way of genetic transformation, only mankind shows the phenomenon of history, which is intimately linked with culture, language and tradition. The reign of nature is dominated by laws progressively revealed in science. Are there laws of history? In view of the fact that laws are

The Future in System – Theoretical Aspect

The dominance of mass man and the suppression of the individual by an ever extending social machinery; the breakdown of the traditional system of values and its replacement by pseudoreligions, ranging from nationalism to the cult of status symbols, to astrology, psychoanalysis and Californian sectarianism; the decay of creativity in art, music and poetry;

The Quandary of Modern Psychology

In recent years the concept of “system” has gained increasing influence in psychology and psychopathology. Numerous investi- gations have referred to general system theory or to some part of it (for example, F. Allport, 1955; G. W. Allport, 1960; Anderson, 1957; Arieti, 1962; Brunswik, 1956; Biihler, 1959; Krech, 1950; Lennard 8c Bernstein, 1960; Menninger,