General will (1762)

Theory propounded initially by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). There is a general will of society as a whole which is distinct from the particular wills of individuals. The general will is both the truest interest of individuals, and the justification for government; although, paradoxically, individuals may consent to a government that thereafter limits their

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Geopolitics

Theory linked with Swedish political scientist RUDOLF KJELLEN (1864-1922) and German political geographer Karl Haushofer (1869-1946). Nations are understood as analogous to natural organisms, competing for geographical space. An archaic theory. Source: Roger Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (London, 1982) United States Alfred Thayer Mahan and sea power Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914) was a

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George Douglas Howard Cole

Born in Cambridge, George Douglas Howard Cole would become one of the leading figures in the Fabian Society, serving as chairman from 1939 to 1946 and 1948 to 1950 and as president from 1952 to 1959. Closely connected to the Guild Socialist Movement, Cole helped found the National Guilds League in 1915. For a

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Great man theory

Theory associated with the Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881). The most significant contribution to any society is made by outstanding individuals. It is such great men, rather than circumstances or broad social or historical movement, who are responsible for progress. Source: B E Lippincot, Victorian Critics of Democracy (Minneapolis, 1938) Overview Carlyle stated that

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Grotian theory (20TH CENTURY)

Named after the Dutch legal theorist Hugo Grotius (1583-1645). Concepts of law and justice can be applied to international society in the manner implied in the work of Grotius, and can find expression in the practice of collective security. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) “Hugo de

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Group theory (20TH CENTURY)

Theory developed in the USA, of politics as the action of groups. Neither individuals nor whole societies are significant political actors. The actions of groups in pursuit of their various interests are the sources of policy and the substance of politics. Group theory is thus a species of pluralism. Source: Bernard Crick, The American Science of Politics

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Guild socialism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of pluralism and workers’ control developed in Great Britain. Workers should control their own crafts and industries, but should be responsible to the interests of society as a whole through representative institutions based on occupation rather than geographical constituencies. This was a compromise between syndicalism and social democracy. Source: Rodney Barker, Political Ideas in Modern Britain (London, 1989) History and development[edit]

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Heartland theory (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of geopolitics described by the British geographer Sir Halford Mackinder (1861-1947). The group or nation which dominates the ‘heartland’ can then extend its domination over a far wider area. This heartland has at various times been Central Asia, the high seas, and Eurasia. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel

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Hegemonic stability theory (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of international politics. Nations achieve dominance in international systems, which they then must maintain by ‘rewards’ to less powerful nations. Such a system is, paradoxically, unstable. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) Hegemonic rise In order for a nation-state to rise to the level of

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Hegemony (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of class domination associated with Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937). Previous Marxist theory had presented classes, especially the capitalist class, ruling via its domination of the state. Gramsci argued that domination of ideas and culture (hegemony) was equally effective, and that for the working class to challenge the existing order it would have – amongst other things –

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High politics (20TH CENTURY)

An account of political history given by British historian Maurice Cowling (1926- ). Politics is carried on within a relatively restricted world of politicians, officials, and public figures. It is guided not so much by general principles as by the desire of the participants to survive politically in response to changing circumstances. Source: Maurice

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Human imperfection (20TH CENTURY)

Element in conservatism. Human nature is inherently flawed, the secular equivalent of the doctrine of original sin. It is both useless and dangerous to pursue ambitious schemes of social or political progress. Government should, rather, seek to preserve order and check humanity’s natural viciousness. Source: David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought

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Hype (20TH CENTURY)

Political version of Gresham’s Law. People and institutions whose surface value (‘hype’) is less than their substance will be driven out by those of whom the reverse is true. ‘An ounce of presentation is worth a ton of production.’ Film and television Hype (TV series), an American comedy television series The Hype (TV series), an Australian television

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Ideology (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of knowledge and values. Term first used by the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836) in 1795 to denote the general science of ideas, but now principally associated with Marxism. The major version of the theory of ideology sees both perceptions and values as shaped by the social situation of the person, and especially

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Immiseration (19TH CENTURY- )

Theory within Marxism of steady decline of condition of working class. The theory is now widely abandoned, save by those who argue that the working class has become relatively worse off. It is now more common to read of the opposite process of embourgeoisement. Karl Marx In Karl Marx’s early writings of the 1840s, he was influenced by David

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Impacted pluralism (20TH CENTURY)

Pessimistic theory of pluralism. A politics characterized by the pursuit by groups of their various interests which used to give something to everyone and achieve negotiated compromises, but which has changed to a situation where competing interests are deadlocked, and neither the public interest nor that of groups is served. Source: S H Beer, Britain Against Itself

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Imperialism (20TH CENTURY)

Economic explanation of overseas expansion of European nations. Originally developed by the maverick British economist John Atkinson Hobson (1858-1940) and the Russian Marxist Vladimir I. Lenin (1870-1924). Imperial expansion resulted from the exhaustion of domestic markets, industrial nations propping up their economies at the expense of those parts of the world which, through military domination, they

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Incrementalism (20TH CENTURY)

A theory of the manner in which governments make decisions. Policies are changed bit by bit in response to changing circumstances, rather than as the result of grand plans or wide-ranging rational calculations. Those who fear change see incrementalism as a slippery slope to disaster; those who want revolution view it as an impediment to progress.

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Individualism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory opposed to collectivism. Human social life is to be understood in terms of the actions of individuals, who are the basic units of society. Complementarily, the basis of moral reasoning consists in the rights of individuals, rather than of groups, societies, or nations. Source: David Miller et at., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford,

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Industrial democracy (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of workers’ control. Political democracy should be paralleled or complemented by industrial democracy. Individual factories or workshops should be managed by those answerable to, and elected by, the body of workers; and within whole firms or industries, processes similar to those in representative democracy should operate. Source: Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge,

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